A Rebuilt Italian Harpsichord at the Metropolitan Collection (NY):
Restoring a Chain of Events
First published at FoMRHI Quarterly Communications 115 (2010), 31-40
Have you ever come across a mystery that would excite you for years afterwards? And did you finally feel a need to puzzle it out?
This paper is about that…
Attending the Metropolitan
In the late 1990s, I visited the Metropolitan Museum. My special interest was the collection of musical instruments. The National Collection contained thousands of musical instruments of different kinds and countries of origin, including about 50 keyboards. Among the latter were exemplars such as a harpsichord converted to a fortepiano, the earliest of extant Cristofori fortepianos, and two harpsichords with three unison (8') string sets. One of them, Nr. 45.41 (Fig. 1), will be the subject of the following pages.
There has always existed the tendency to provide a harpsichord with additional equipment for enriching its sound with either over- or undertones or just for an option of another tone quality. Among the different rare features such as the 2' and 16' string sets, nasal (fagot) or leather (lute) registers, buff stops and even a third keyboard, the third unison string set is probably one of the most exotic design solutions in harpsichord building of the 18th century.
Fig. 1. Italian harpsichord at the Metropolitan, Catalogue Nr. 45.41
As we will see later, this instrument has been rebuilt and there were many uncertainties about its initial disposition or possible further changes. Nowadays, we cannot imagine that somebody would change the compass of, say, a concert Steinway, but rebuilding keyboard instruments was typical in the 18th century. As a practicing restorer and rebuilder of early keyboards, with experience of changing string types and keyboard compasses, I would try to restore the chain of events that might have passed over that instrument. My starting point is to suppose the unusual human stories behind the unusual technical solutions. Another point is that we often follow paradigms for evaluations and opinions; sometimes, however, we have to change our mind to gain more truthful picture. I will build my essay by combining different perceptions of the subject (in addition to the first glance of a visitor): curator, conservator, restorer, writer and, finally, rebuilder.
I would like to acknowledge J. Kenneth (Ken) Moore, Associate Curator & Administrator in the Department of Musical Instruments at the Metropolitan Museum, and Susana Henriques Caldeira, conservator in the department, for their generous and substantial contribution to the work on this material.
Catalogue Information1
Department: Musical Instruments
Object Name: Harpsichord
Classification: Chordophone-Zither-plucked-harpsichord
Label Text: This harpsichord has three sets of unison strings, one of which is plucked at a point very closed to the nut so as to give a brighter timbre than the others.2 The mermaid holding one of the supporting columns is a device of the Colonna family. The painting inside the lid shows a landscape with a duck hunter. The conventionalized foliage and the aerial perspective have the flavor of the work of Gaspard Dughet, brother-in-law of Nicolas Poussin, who painted chiefly in Rome.
Date Label: Late 17th century
Country of Origin: Italy, Southern, Europe
Medium: Wood, various materials
Description: Inner-outer case, inner of cypress or cedar with spruce or fir soundboard, present compass AA-c''', 3x8', probably enlarged from C/E-c''' 2x8'; pin-block, nuts and registers possibly not original; interior much altered; in painted outer case on 3 columnar legs, front 2 supporting crowned mermaid, signia of the Colonna family.
Dimensions: Inner case: L. w/o moldings 227.8 cm (89-11/16 in.), L. w/moldings 231.2 cm (91-7/16 in.); W. w/o moldings 79.7 cm (31.3/8 in.), W. w/moldings: 81.5 cm (32-1/16 in.); D.24.8 cm (9-3/4 in.); Octave span: c-b2 cm 49.9 cm (19-11/16 in.)
Mark(s): Marked (on interior): Restored to playing condition for Miss S. D. Bliss in August & September Nineteen Forty. By Ernst Schlesinger & Fred J. Markert New York City N. Y.
Notes: Pinblock and nuts not original, compass perhaps changed (John van der Meer, October 1976). Dating changed from XVII century to XVIII century; Rome added; paintings attributed to Gaspard Dughet, probably. The crowned mermaid and column supports indicate that the harpsichord was made for the Colonna family.
A Range of Opinions3
This harpsichord is of the traditional Italian inner-outer type. Through study of the moldings, Denzil Wraight attributes it to Orazio Albana, whose known work is dated between 1628 and 1645.4 The instrument has undergone some alterations, and the original disposition is uncertain. The keyboard, now with compass AA to c''', has also been altered. Wraight concluded, on the evidence of an addition to the bass of the keyframe, that the original compass was GG/BB to c'''.5 The bottom seven key levers (AA to E-flat) are made of a different wood from the rest, which (excepting keys 46 and 52) are made of beech. This suggests the possibility that the original compass began on E (C/E) and extended to f'''.6 There are two nuts and one bridge. The nut closer to the player is at a higher level and carries two sets of strings. The strings of the lower nut, closer to the wrest plank, pass through slots in the higher nut. The three jackslides are marked P, S, and T (Primo, Secondo, Terzo) from front to back.
The present arrangement of the jacks is:
Fig. 2. String and jack arrangement of the Albana harpsichord.
Whether this arrangement is original, from a later rebuild, or from a twentieth-century restoration is uncertain. The present string lengths and plucking points are:
Table 1. String measurements, plucking points, and percentages of plucked string of the Albana harpsichord.7
|
| < 8' upper level | 8' > upper level | < 8' lower level | ||||||
| String length | plucking point (estimated) | % plucking point | String length | plucking point | % plucking point | String length | plucking point | % plucking point | |
| c''' | 143 | 62 | 43.3 | 133 | 44 | 33 | 119 | 45 | 37.8 |
| c'' | 280 | 77 | 27.5 | 267 | 59 | 22 | 230 | 45 | 19.5 |
| c' | 559 | 102 | 18.2 | 530 | 84 | 15.8 | 485 | 47 | 9.7 |
| c | 1125 | 121 | 10.7 | 1069 | 103 | 9.6 | 1042 | 61 | 5.8 |
| C | 1833 | 139 | 7.5 | 1818 | 121 | 6.6 | 1767 | 89 | 5 |
Grant O'Brien has suggested that the lower level of strings, which in the treble are shorter than the longer upper-level set by a ratio of about 5:6, was intended for brass strings, while the upper-level strings would have been strung in iron.8 With the present keyboard compass, the upper-level string lengths (for example, c'' of the <8' is 280 mm long) are what one would expect for a brass-strung instrument at normal 8' pitch. Strung in iron, the pitch would be about a third higher, but if the keyboard originally ended on f''', with that key playing the strings now played by the c''' key of the present altered keyboard, the original pitch might have been close to the normal 8' level. The situation is more complicated, however, since marks on the wrest plank show that the two nuts were formerly closely spaced. [...] Wraight also notes that the moldings of the present nuts do not match the bridge, so they might have been replaced as well as moved. Even the soundboard might have been replaced, since other Albana instruments have cypress soundboards and this one is of spruce or fir, with the grain somewhat unusually placed at an angle with the spine rather than parallel to it.
The most that can be said is that the present disposition, compass, and scaling may stem from an eighteenth-century rebuilding. While it might have been strung with a mixture of brass and iron, as O'Brien suggests, another possibility is that it was intended to be strung entirely in brass. The upper-level strings could then be tuned to normal 8' pitch, while the lower-level strings would have been tuned to a somewhat higher pitch. Thus, accompaniments could be transposed for different singers or instruments. One should note that the plucking points of lower-level strings, even when acted upon by the back set of jacks, are significantly closer than the plucking points of the upper-level strings. Thus, this register must have had a much more nasal tone quality in comparison with the others.
Technical Intermezzo
Well, opinions of experienced experts have diverged in almost all questions of principle concerning the harpsichord with a mermaid statue. Those and some additional aspects can be divided into four groups according to the chronological order of possible events:
1) Original disposition:
- compass of keyboard;
- material of strings; and
- pitch;
2) Reasons for rebuilding;
3) Initial plan of rebuilding:
- compass of keyboard;
- material of strings;
- pitch;
- destination of the third unison string set;
- design of the new wrest plank (position of the additional nut); and
- order and plucking direction of the new jack sets;
4) Later changes (leading to the present disposition).
In our attempt to restore the possible chain of events, we will take into account the following points of attitude:
1) Compass, string material and pitch of Italian harpsichords in the 17th and 18th centuries;
2) Lengths of the longest and shortest c'' (of the discussed instrument);
3) Initial position of low nut in the wrest plank.
4) The circumstances that might accompany the performing of rebuilding works; and
5) External factors such as the weather or quality of the string wire.
The information below was helpful to our search.
String material
Presently, most Italian harpsichords are disposed with two 8' choirs, and strung with brass, which was the norm in the late 17th and 18th centuries. Before about 1630, however, the most frequent disposition featured one 8' and one 4', and some instruments were designed with iron wire.9 It is possible that what we have come to appreciate as the 'traditional' Italian harpsichord with a short, brass-wire scale is in fact merely the restringing of a 16th-century, iron-wire scaled design.10
Pitch
Until recent times, there has been no common standard for pitches. Different pitches were circulating at different periods in different countries (Table 2).
Table 2. Selected pitches from the table by A.J.Ellis11
| Pitch | Place | Year | Source |
| 395.8 | Versailles, France | 1789 | Organ of the palace chapel |
| 409.0 | Paris, France | 1783 | Tuning fork of Pascal Taskin, court tuner |
| 441.0 | Rome, Italy | 1725 | Pitch calculated from a flute made by Biglioni, Rome |
| 422.5 | London, England | 1751 | Handel's tuning fork |
| 451.7 | Milan, Italy | 1867 | La Scala Opera |
| 454.08 | London, England | 1874 | Old philharmonic pitch, instigated by Sir Charles Hall |
Seventeenth century Italy had probably the widest range of pitches (in different cities), although there were, nevertheless, certain names for certain pitches:
tuono corista 408–409 Hz
tutto punto = 440–443 Hz
mezzo punto = 460–470 Hz12
Keyboard compass
The accepted compass standards of early Italian harpsichords were either C/E-c''' or C/E-f'''13.
String length
The main range for Italian 8' instruments was between about 255 mm and 360 mm measured at c''14. C/E-c''' compasses usually had short scales (averaging 266 mm), while C/E-f''' compasses were associated with long scales (averaging 327 mm). In our case, the lengths of the longest and shortest a' were, correspondingly, 28 and 23 cm. As a reminder, the optimal length (at a pitch of a'=440) for the soft Baroque iron is 36 cm, and 26 cm for the yellow brass wire15.
Quality of string wire
My experience has shown that brass string wires of a similar size produced by different manufacturers might have different breaking points (of more than half a tone).
Concepts to be and not to be concerned
The technical evidence of the seven keys (in the bass) made of different wood as against the marks of changing the key frame complicates the clarification of possible events. Of course, the seven keys could have been replaced for a simple reason. For instance, a scion of the Colonna family suddenly puts his arm on the waist of servant-maid, and she drops wet linen (or a saucepan) on the keyboard. As a result, several keys are totally damaged. Such versions, however, will not be regarded here. Now, I suppose that no 18th century builder would engage with an additional (unison) string set without the essential action of reducing the general tension. Therefore, the idea of the original AA/B-c''' compass with brass stringing will also receive little consideration. The marks of another initial placement of the second nut on the wrest plank allude to a story with pitches during the performing of the planned work on the instrument. Those are preliminary layouts to which both our ‘writer’ and ‘rebuilder’ will follow in their investigations into the possible chain of events.
Bellezza rossa
Buzz Buzz Buzz What a horrible sound! Alessandro Marella had a sorrowful glance at the last string to be replaced and slowly pressed the key: Denn Denn Denn The sound of a carefree childhood. The difference was so perceptible that tears filled the maker’s eyes.
A young brother of Giovanni Marella, an Italian composer favored by the French court, Alessandro was a cheerful guy who knew how to live within the moment and sought not to enter history. The brothers were distant relatives of Felice Colonna, a descendant from a powerful noble family in Medieval and Renaissance Rome. Alessandro was infatuated with Natalina, Felice’s young daughter, and the pretty red-haired girl, bellezza rossa, was also well disposed to him.
A while before, Colonna had acquired an old harpsichord. The instrument was in playable condition, but it lacked several low keys and thus did not truly suit contemporary music. Felice wanted to rebuild the harpsichord and entrusted the task to Alessandro who, however, had to first undertake professional studies with one of the specialists in the field. Colonna’s friend Gaspard Dughet, a French painter who chiefly worked in Rome and was the brother-in-law of the renowned artist Nicolas Poussin, recommended Pascal Taskin, a tuner of the French court, who was already well known for his work on Rueckers’ harpsichords. Giovanni talked to Taskin about his brother, and le maître approved of Alessandro’s arrival with an Italian clavicembalo to be rebuilt to the gravicembalo quality level. Thus, Alessandro traveled to Paris, and on the day before his departure, Natalina promised to marry him upon his return.
At the beginning, Taskin confided the three principles of rebuilding to his pupil. Everything you do must make sense. Be precise but know when to stop. Be original but don’t break existing rules. The harpsichord had to be rebuilt, restrung and tuned at a lower tone. For Marella, the new strings made of brass were a hidden sign of his love for bellezza rossa. Taskin permitted him to design an additional string set to also be strung in brass. This register might give the instrument a new-fashioned nasal timbre. For Alessandro, dreams of Natalina, who often became sick during the winter, were a part of this concept.
When the instrument was almost ready, something unexpected happened. Colonna sent them a flute by Biglioni with a short directive that the harpsichord must be tuned at that tone. The flute’s pitch was substantially higher than Taskin’s fork. Pourquoi? Taskin was truly puzzled; he knew that the low tone, tuono corista, was still commonly used in Rome. Your outstanding design will be lost! Marella, however, quickly caught the true meaning of this gesture; Ferro Felice, who was rather displeased with his daughter’s choice, was attempting to delay his return. Alessandro wrote to Natalina, telling her that there was nothing more important in his life than their love and asking her to wait for him. Week after week went by but no answer arrived.
The harpsichord was restrung again in iron. The Bellezza rossa register, though still in brass, lost its nasal timbre. It was now only the register that offered a bright, clear sound; the others became dark and dull. Taskin was no longer interested in that business.
After three months Marella finished his work and came back with the rebuilt instrument. The next day he learned that Natalina had gone to a monastery: she had received none of his letters and was full of despair. Alessandro would never know whose fault it was – the postman’s or her father’s.
Shortly thereafter, the instrument was painted by Gaspard Dughet, and a crown mermaid, a signia of the Colonna family, found its place near the front leg. It was already winter, and the weather was unusually cold that year. The brass strings raised their tone and commenced to break, one by one. Do something! commanded Colonna. A dream was broken. There was no more sense in maintaining the Bellezza rossa in brass.
Buzz Buzz Buzz The last string was replaced. Marella took a brief breath: a love was buried, but a mystery was born, a mystery of the third register, which was neither nasal nor bright. Just a senseless accessory…
Knock-knock-knock. Alessandro looked at the door and answered listlessly, Si. Suddenly, his face has brightened into the happiest smile: Natalina entered the room.
Post Scriptum
Italian harpsichord. Supposedly built by Orazio Albana, Rome, in the mid-17th century with a compass of C/E-f''' and two sets of iron strings at a pitch of around a'=460 (so-called mezzo punto). Planned to be rebuilt in the early 18th century with a new compass of A-c''' and brass stringing at a pitch around a'=408 (tuono corista). The lower tension of the new strings lent itself to putting an additional set of slightly shorter unison strings to be plucked by an additional row of jacks close to the nut, so as to give a fashioned then nasal register. A new wrest plank with two nuts was also designed.
Fig. 3. Italian harpsichord at the Metropolitan, Catalogue Nr. 45.41. A view from the front.
The circumstances have probably changed. A customer might give a rebuilder, as a sample of a wanted pitch, a wind instrument (or a fork) tuned at around 440 (tutto punto). One of nuts then must be moved to shorten the lengths of the third 8' to keep at least one string set at a clear brass sound. The rest were restrung in iron.
As a later step, some of the brass strings might not last the winter when the instrument raised its tone (because of the insufficient quality of the wire) and therefore the third 8' was restrung in iron. Since then, the instrument became just a ‘transposing continuo keyboard’ for different vocal and instrumental pitch solutions. Each one of its string sets might be tuned to a different pitch (up to a fifth higher than a'=440).
1. This material, compiled by L. Libin in 1985, has been kindly granted by Ken Moore.↩
2. 10 years ago, this phrase put me into a “mystery of the third unison string set”. I guessed that a timbre in that case might be rather nasal-like, and a short-scaled set might be supposedly strung in brass.↩
3. This review has been carried out by Susana Henriques Caldeira as a part of her MA thesis ‘An Italian Harpsichord Built About 1700: History, Design, and Conservation’, Department of Music in the Graduate School, The University of South Dakota, Vermillion, May 2004, pp. 93–96. Footnotes 4–9 below are a part of that paper – A.R.↩
4. Denzil Wraight, 'The Stringing of Italian Keyboard Instruments c. 1500 – c. 1650', Ph.D. dissertation, Queen's University of Belfast, 1997, part 2, 19.↩
5. Ibid.↩
6. Grant O'Brien, in his notes in the Metropolitan Museum files, suggests that the original compass was C/E to e'''.↩
7. Measurements from the file of the instrument at The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Some have been converted from measurements in inches. The upper-level < 8' plucking points are estimated from measurements of the 8' > plucking points.↩
8. O'Brien's conclusions are reported by Wraight, ‘The Stringing of Italian Keyboard Instruments’, part 2, 19.↩
9. Source: www.harpsichord-holland.com.↩
10. Denzil Wraight (www.denzilwraight.com).↩
11. Alexander J. Ellis."On the History of Musical Pitch," Journal of the Society of Arts, (March 5, 1880). Reprinted in Studies in the History of Music Pitch, Amsterdam: Frits Knuf, 1968.↩
12. Bruce Haynes, 'Pitch Standards in the Baroque and Classical Periods', Ph.D. thesis, University of Montréal, 1995; Folkers & Powell, Makers of Historical Flutes (www.baroqueflute.com).↩
13. John Shortridge, 'Harpsichord-Building in the 16th and 17th Centuries', United States National Museum Bulletin 225 paper 15 (1960, 2/1970).↩
14. Denzil Wraight (www.denzilwraight.com).↩
15. This follows Gerrit Klop’s table of harpsichord string lengths, which I copied to my notebook in the early 1990s.↩
